Özçakar L

Bell's palsy, or idiopathic peripheral facial nerve palsy, is characterized by the sudden onset of facial muscle paralysis resulting from damage to the facial nerve fibers. The diagnosis is typically established through clinical evaluation,…

This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors   www.springer.com/0…

Application of botulinum toxin A (BoNT-A) into the muscles of the head and neck area has become a widespread and reliable treatment modality for chronic migraine. The mechanism of action for BoNT-A is the inhibition of acetylcholine and loc…

To provide a historic snapshot as regards the evolution of headache treatment throughout the human history, i.e. starting from trepanation to perisutural botulinum toxin (BoNT) injections. Ancient surgeons had aimed to reach the cranium wit…

[BACKGROUND] The anti-spasticity efficacy of botulinum toxin (BoNT) injection has been well established for patients with chronic stroke; however, extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT), i.e. focused shockwave (FSW) and radial shockwave (…

High-resolution ultrasound is preferred as the first-line imaging modality for evaluation of superficial soft tissues, such as the facial muscles. In contrast to magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography, which require specifically…

Hemiplegic shoulder pain (HSP) hampers post-stroke functional recovery and is not well managed with conservative treatments. This systematic review aimed to examine the various injection therapies for HSP and investigate their effectiveness…

Spasticity is a common sequala of the upper motor neuron lesions. For instance, it often occurs in the first 4 weeks after stroke and is seen in more than one-third of stroke survivors after 12 months. In recent years, extracorporeal shock …

Botulinum toxin (BoNT) has been widely employed to treat poststroke spasticity, cervical dystonia and muscle hyperactivity. Recently, BoNT injections are increasingly used in treating musculoskeletal pain. The mechanism of BoNT in pain reli…

The treatment of chronic migraine headache is quite challenging and new alternatives are still being explored for its management. Onabotulinum toxin A (BoNT-A) applied into extracranial muscles has been shown to inhibit the release of acety…

Muscle overactivity (spasticity, dystonia or spasm) seen in certain neuromuscular disorders has been effectively treated with intramuscular injection of botulinum neurotoxins (BTXs). Since they act in the nerve terminals, toxins must be tra…

Intramuscular botulinum toxin (BoTX) injection is the first-line treatment of cervical dystonia. Poor treatment outcomes and some side effects, however, have been reported after BoTX applications. One of the most important reasons is incorr…

The pertinent literature lacks overt technical data for optimal upper limb muscle botulinum toxin injections using ultrasound (US) imaging. Therefore, this guide is prepared for the commonly injected muscles of the upper limb and the should…

The pertinent literature lacks overt technical data for optimal lower limb muscle botulinum toxin injections using ultrasound (US) imaging. Therefore, this guide is prepared for the commonly injected muscles of the lower limb and the pelvic…

[PURPOSE OF REVIEW] On the basis of its various advantages and the relevant awareness of physicians, ultrasound imaging has overwhelmingly taken its place in the scientific arena. This is true both from the side of daily clinical applicatio…

Recently, the importance of targeting structures during botulinum neurotoxin applications has been discussed in a variety of disorders, including spasticity and dystonia. In this respect, the advantages of ultrasound imaging to traditional …

Anatomical variations of the muscles are seen with different frequencies. Although most of them are asymptomatic; in certain cases, their existence requires attention with regard to entrapment syndromes, mass lesions, botulinum toxin inject…