Management of the child with refractory constipation.

[BACKGROUND] Caring for children with constipation refractory to conventional treatment can be challenging and management practices vary widely.

[AIMS] To review recent advances in the evaluation and treatment of children with refractory constipation and to propose an algorithm that incorporates the latest evidence and our institutional experience.

[METHODS] We performed a literature review on diagnostic tests and treatment options for children with refractory constipation.

[RESULTS] Evaluation of a child with refractory constipation seeks to better understand factors contributing to an individual child's presentation. Anorectal manometry evaluating for a rectal evacuation disorder and colonic manometry evaluating for colonic dysmotility can guide subsequent treatment. For the child who has not responded to conventional treatment, a trial of newer medications like linaclotide can be helpful. Transanal irrigation offers a safe and effective alternative for families able to administer daily rectal treatment. Despite mixed evidence in children, pelvic floor biofeedback therapy can help some children with pelvic floor dyssynergia. For younger children unable to cooperate with pelvic floor therapy, or older children with refractory symptoms, internal anal sphincter botulinum toxin injection can be beneficial. Antegrade continence enema treatment can be effective for children with either normal colonic motility or segmental dysmotility. Sacral nerve stimulation is generally reserved for symptoms that persist despite antegrade continence enemas, particularly if faecal incontinence is prominent. In more severe cases, temporary or permanent colonic diversion and segmental colonic resection may be needed.

[CONCLUSIONS] Recent advances offer hope for children with refractory constipation.