Current management of refractory overactive bladder.

Overactive bladder (OAB) is a common condition affecting one-sixth to one-fifth of the global population. The treatment of refractory OAB remains a challenge for urologists. Current treatment options include the use of combination therapy with antimuscarinic agents and beta-3 adrenoceptor agonists, and treating underlying curable disorders. Intravesical botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) injection, percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation, and sacral nerve stimulation are third-line management therapies suggested by the American Urological Association/Society of Urodynamics, Female Pelvic Medicine & Urogenital Reconstruction (AUA/SUFU) guidelines. In rare cases, more invasive surgical interventions can be considered after explaining the benefits and risks to the patients. Augmentation cystoplasty has a high success rate; however, it has also been associated with a high complication rate. In contrast, detrusor myomectomy is an easy procedure, but the treatment outcome remains controversial. Liposome-encapsulated BoNT-A is administered via bladder instillation, and promising results have been obtained in preliminary studies. More therapies are currently being investigated, and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 antagonists may be new type of medication. Radiofrequency ablation and other targets for neuromodulation have also been studied; however, more evidence is needed to confirm their efficacy.